CHAPTER 29

CHAPTER 29
The Crisis of the Imperial Order, 1900–1929
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter students should:
1. Understand the origins, conduct, and social and political effects of the First World War in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the United States.
2. Be able to describe and analyze the causes and significance of the Russian Revolutions and Lenin’s policies in the Soviet Union.
3. Be able to compare the histories of Japan and China from 1900 to 1929 and be able to offer explanations for the differences in the destinies of these two nations.
4. Be able to describe and assess the significance of the ways in which the First World War and the Mandate System affected Turkey and the Middle East.
5. Understand the ways in which the First World War, economic growth, technological change, and scientific advances led to social and cultural change in Western Europe and North America from 1918 to 1929.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Origins of the Crisis in Europe and the Middle East
A. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkans
1. By the late nineteenth century the once-powerful Ottoman Empire was in decline and losing the outlying provinces closest to Europe. The European powers meddled in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, sometimes in cooperation, at other times as rivals.
2. In reaction, the Young Turks conspired to force a constitution on the Sultan, advocated centralized rule and Turkification of minorities, and carried out modernizing reforms. The Turks turned to Germany for assistance and hired a German general to modernize Turkey’s armed forces.
B. Nationalism, Alliances, and Military Strategy
1. The three main causes of World War I were nationalism, the system of alliances and military plans, and Germany’s yearning to dominate Europe.
2. Nationalism was deeply rooted in European culture, where it served to unite individual nations while undermining large multiethnic empires. Because of the spread of nationalism, most people viewed war as a crusade for liberty or as revenges for past injustices; the well-to-do believed that war could heal the class divisions in their societies.
3. The major European countries were organized into two alliances: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia). The military alliance system was accompanied by inflexible mobilization plans that depended on railroads to move troops according to precise schedules.
4. When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, diplomats, statesmen, and monarchs quickly lost control of events. The alliance system in combination with the rigidly scheduled mobilization plans meant that war was automatic.
II. The “Great War” and the Russian Revolutions, 1914–1918.
A. Stalemate, 1914–1917
1. The nations of Europe entered the war in high spirits, confident of victory. German victory at first seemed assured, but as the German advance faltered in September, both sides spread out until they formed an unbroken line of trenches (the Western Front) from the North Sea to Switzerland.
2. The generals on each side tried for four years to take enemy positions by ordering their troops to charge across the open fields, only to have them cut down by machine-gun fire. For four years the war was inconclusive on both land and at sea.
B. The Home Front and the War Economy
1. The material demands of trench warfare led governments to impose stringent controls over all aspects of their economies. Rationing and the recruitment of Africans, Indians, Chinese, and women into the European labor force transformed civilian life. German civilians paid an especially high price for the war as the British naval blockade cut off access to essential food imports.
2. British and French forces overran Germany’s African colonies (except for Tanganyika). In all of their African colonies Europeans requisitioned food, imposed heavy taxes, forced Africans to grow export crops and sell them at low prices, and recruited African men to serve as soldiers and as porters.
3. The United States grew rich during the war by selling goods to Britain and France. When the United States entered the war in 1917, businesses engaged in war production made tremendous profits.
C. The Ottoman Empire at War
1. The Turks signed a secret alliance with Germany in 1914. Turkey engaged in unsuccessful campaigns against Russia, deported the Armenians (causing the deaths of hundred of thousands), and closed the Dardanelles Straits.
2. When they failed to open the Dardanelles Straits by force, the British tried to subvert the Ottoman Empire from within by promising emir Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca a kingdom of his own if he would lead a revolt against the Turks, which he did in 1916.
3. In the Balfour Declaration of 1917 the British suggested to the Zionist leader Chaim Wiezman that they would “view with favor” the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine. Britain also sent troops into southern Mesopotamia in order to secure the oil pipeline from Iran, taking Baghdad in early 1917.
D. Double Revolution in Russia, 1917
1. By late 1916 the large but incompetent and poorly equipped Russian army had experienced numerous defeats and had run out of ammunition and other essential supplies. The civilian economy was in a state of collapse and the cities faced shortages of fuel and food in the winter of 1916–1917.
2. In March 1917 (February by the old Russian calendar) the tsar was overthrown and replaced by a Provisional Government led by Alexander Kerensky. On November 6, 1917 (October 24 in the Russian calendar) Vladimir Lenin’s Bolsheviks staged an uprising in Petrograd and overthrew the Provisional Government.
E. The End of the War in Western Europe, 1917–1918
1. German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare brought the United States into the war in April 1917. On the Western Front, the two sides were evenly matched, but in 1918 the Germans were able to break through the front at several places and pushed within 40 miles of Paris.
2. The arrival of United States forces allowed the Allies to counterattack in August 1918. The German soldiers retreated, many sick with the flu; an armistice was signed on November 11.
III. Peace and Dislocation in Europe, 1919–1929
A. The Impact of the War
1. The war left more dead and wounded and caused more physical destruction than any previous conflict. The war also created millions of refugees, many of whom fled to France and to the United States, where the influx of immigrants prompted the United States Congress to pass immigration laws that closed the doors to eastern and southern Europeans.
2. One byproduct of the war was the influenza epidemic of 1918–1919, which started among soldiers headed for the Western Front and spread around the world, killing some 30 million people. The war also caused serious damage to the environment and hastened the build-up of mines, factories, and railroads.
B. The Peace Treaties
1. Three men dominated the Paris Peace Conference: United States President Wilson, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and French Premier Georges Clemenceau. Because the three men had conflicting goals, the Treaty of Versailles turned out to be a series of unsatisfying compromises that humiliated Germany but left it largely intact and potentially the most powerful nation in Europe.
2. The Austro-Hungarian Empire fell apart. New countries were created in the lands lost by Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary.
C. Russian Civil War and the New Economic Policy
1. In Russia, Allied intervention and civil war extended the fighting for another three years beyond the end of World War I. By 1921 the Communists had defeated most of their enemies, and in 1922 the Soviet republic of Ukraine and Russia merged to create the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
2. Years of warfare, revolution, and mismanagement had ruined the Russian economy. Beginning in 1921 Lenin’s New Economic Policy helped to restore production by relaxing government controls and allowing a return of market economics. This policy was regarded as a temporary measure that would be superceded as the Soviet Union built a modern socialist industrial economy by extracting resources from the peasants in order to pay for industrialization.
3. When Lenin died in January 1924 his associates struggled for power; the two main contenders were Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. Stalin filled the bureaucracy with his supporters, expelled Trotsky, and forced him to flee the country.
D. An Ephemeral Peace
1. The 1920s were a decade of apparent progress behind which lurked irreconcilable tensions and dissatisfaction among people whose hopes had been raised by the rhetoric of war and dashed by its outcome. The decade after the end of the war can be divided into two periods: five years of painful recovery and readjustment (1919–1923) followed by six years of growing peace and prosperity (1924–1929).
2. In 1923 French occupation of the Ruhr and severe inflation brought Germany to the brink of civil war. Currency reform and French withdrawal from the Ruhr marked the beginning of a period of peace and economic growth beginning in 1924.
IV. China and Japan: Contrasting Destinies
A. Social and Economic Change
1. In the first decades of the twentieth century China was plagued by rapid population growth, an increasingly unfavorable ration of population to arable land, avaricious landlords and tax collectors, and frequent devastating floods of the Yellow River. Japan had few natural resources and very little arable land, and, while not troubled by floods, Japan was subject to other natural calamities.
2. Above the peasantry Chinese society was divided among many groups: landowners, wealthy merchants, and foreigners, whose luxurious lives aroused the resentment of educated young urban Chinese. In Japan, industrialization and economic growth aggravated social tensions between westernized urbanites and traditionalists and between the immensely wealthy zaibatsu and the poor farmers who still comprised half the population.
3. Japanese prosperity depended on foreign trade and on imperialism in Asia. This made Japan much more vulnerable than China to swings in the world economy.
B. Revolution and War, 1900–1918
1. China’s defeat and humiliation at the hands of an international force in the Boxer affair of 1900 led many Chinese students to conclude that China needed a revolution to overthrow the Qing and modernize the country. When a regional army unit mutinied in 1911 Sun Yat-sen’s Revolutionary Alliance formed an assembly and elected Sun as president of China, but in order to avoid a civil war, the presidency was turned over to the powerful general Yuan Shikai, who rejected democracy and ruled as an autocrat.
2. The Japanese joined the Allied side in World War I and benefited from an economic boom as demand for their products rose. Japan used the war as an opportunity to conquer the German colonies in the northern pacific and on the Chinese coast and to further extend Japanese influence in China by forcing the Chinese government to accede to many of the conditions presented in a document called the Twenty-One Demands.
C. Chinese Warlords and the Guomindang, 1919–1929
1. At the Paris Peace Conference the great powers allowed Japan to retain control over seized German enclaves in China, sparking protests in Beijing (May 4, 1919) and in many other parts of China. China’s regional generals—the warlords—supported their armies through plunder and arbitrary taxation so that China grew poorer while only the treaty ports prospered.
2. Sun Yat-sen tried to make a comeback in Canton in the 1920s by reorganizing his Guomindang party along Leninist lines and by welcoming members of the newly created Chinese Communist Party. Sun’s successor Chiang Kai-shek crushed the regional warlords in 1927.
3. Chiang then split with and decimated the Communist Party and embarked on an ambitious plan of top-down industrial modernization. However, Chiang’s government was staffed by corrupt opportunists, not by competent administrators: China remained mired in poverty.
V. The New Middle East
A. The Mandate System
1. Instead of being given their independence, the former German colonies and Ottoman territories were given to the great powers as mandates. Class C Mandates were ruled as colonies, while Class B Mandates were to be given their autonomy at some unspecified time in the future.
2. The Arab-speaking territories of the former Ottoman Empire were Class A Mandates, a category that was defined in such a way as to lead the Arabs to believe that they had been promised independence. In practice, Britain took control of Palestine, Iraq, and Trans-Jordan, while France took Syria and Lebanon as its mandates.
B. The Rise of Modern Turkey
1. At the end of the war the Ottoman Empire was at the point of collapse, with French, British, Italian, and Greek forces occupying Constantinople and parts of Anatolia. The hero of the Gallipoli campaign Mustafa Kemal formed a nationalist government in 1919 and reconquered Anatolia and the area around Constantinople in 1922.
2. Kemal was an outspoken modernizer who declared Turkey to be a secular republic, introduced European laws, replaced the Arabic alphabet with the Latin alphabet, and attempted to westernize the Turkish family, the roles of women, and even Turkish clothing and headgear. His reforms spread quickly in the urban areas, but they encountered strong resistance in the countryside, where Islamic traditions remained strong.
C. Arab Lands and the Question of Palestine
1. Among the Arab people, the thinly disguised colonialism of the Mandate System set off protests and rebellions. At the same time, Middle Eastern society underwent significant changes: nomads disappeared, the population grew by 50 percent from 1914 to 1939, major cities doubled in size, and the urban merchant class adopted Western ideas, customs, and lifestyles.
2. The Maghrib (Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco) was dominated by the French army and by French settlers, who owned the best lands and monopolized government jobs and businesses. Arabs and Berbers remained poor and suffered from discrimination.
3. The British allowed Iraq to become independent under King Faisal (leader of the Arab revolt) but maintained a significant military and economic influence. France sent thousands of troops to crush nationalist uprisings in Lebanon and Syria. Britain declared Egypt to be independent in 1922 but retained control through its alliance with King Farouk.
4. In the Palestine Mandate, the British tried to limit the wave of Jewish immigration that began in 1920, but only succeeded in alienating both Jews and Arabs.
VI. Society, Culture, and Technology in the Industrialized World
A. Class and Gender
1. Class distinctions faded after the war as the role of the aristocracy (many of whom had died in battle) declined and displays of wealth came to be regarded as unpatriotic. The expanded role of government during and after the war led to an increase in the numbers of white collar workers; the working class did not expand because the introduction of new machinery and new ways of organizing work made it possible to increase production without expanding the labor force.
2. In the 1920s women enjoyed more personal freedoms than ever before, and women won the right to vote in some countries between 1915 and 1934. This did not have a significant effect on politics because women tended to vote like their male relatives.
B. Revolution in the Sciences
1. The discovery of sub-atomic particles, quanta, Einstein’s theory of relativity, and the discovery that light is made up of either waves or particles undermined the certainties of Newtonian physics and offered the potential of unlocking new and dangerous sources of energy.
2. Innovations in the social sciences challenged Victorian morality, middle class values, and notions of Western superiority. The psychology of Sigmund Freud and the sociology of Emile Durkheim introduced notions of cultural relativism that combined with the experience of the war to call into question the West’s faith in reason and progress.
C. The New Technologies of Modernity
1. The European and American public was fascinated with new technologies like the airplane and lionized the early aviators: Amelia Earhart, Richard Byrd, and especially Charles Lindbergh. Electricity began to transform home life, and commercial radio stations brought news, sports, soap operas, and advertising to homes throughout North America.
2. Film spread explosively in the 1920s. The early film industry of the silent film era was marked by diversity, with films being made in Japan, India, Turkey, Egypt, and Hollywood in the 1920s. The introduction of the talking picture in the United States in 1921, combined with the tremendous size of the American market, marked the beginning of the era of Hollywood’s domination of film and its role in the diffusion of American culture.
3. Health and hygiene were also part of the cult of modernity. Advances in medicine, sewage treatment systems, indoor plumbing, and the increased use of soap and home appliances contributed to declines in infant mortality and improvements in health and life expectancy.
D. Technology and the Environment
1. The skyscraper and the automobile transformed the urban environment. Skyscrapers with load-bearing steel frames and passenger elevators were built in American cities. European cities restricted the height of buildings, but European architects led the way in designing simple, easily constructed inexpensive, functional buildings in what came to be known as the International Style.
2. Mass-produced automobiles replaced horses in the city streets and led to the construction of far-flung suburban areas like those of Los Angeles. On farms, gasoline-powered tractors began replacing horses in the 1920s while dams and canals were used to generate electricity and to irrigate dry land.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Why did the crisis in the Balkans lead to a world war rather than to a limited European war?
2. How did the First World War change the role of the state in Europe and North America? How did they contribute to social change?
3. Were there weaknesses or flaws in the system of international relations and trade that was established in the aftermath of the First World War? If so, what were those weaknesses, and what was their significance?
4. What different strategies might historians use to explain the contrasting destinies of China and Japan from 1900 to 1929?
5. In the Middle East, did the events of the first thirty years of the twentieth century lead to greater solidarity in the face of imperialism, or did they encourage a trend toward political and cultural fragmentation?
6. What effects did the experience of the First World War and the scientific and technological advances of the post-war years have on Western society and on the relations between the West and the colonized world?
LECTURE TOPICS
1. The First World War
Sources:
a. Gilbert, Felix. The End of the European Era, 1890–the Present. 4th. New York: W.W. Norton, 1991.
b. Hardach, Gerd. The First World War, 1914–1918. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.
c. Joll, James. The Origins of the First World War. 2nd. London: Longman, 1992.
d. Keegan, John. The Face of Battle. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1978.
e. Schnitt, Bernadotte and Harold C. Bedeler. The World in the Crucible, 1914–1918. New York: Harper & Row, 1984.
2. War, Technology, and Social Change
Sources:
a. Crosby, Alfred W. America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
b. Feldman, Gerald D. The Army, Industry, and Labor in Germany, 1914–1918. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966.
c. Higonnet, Margaret, et al. Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.
d. McNiell, William. The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
3. The Russian Revolutions and the Soviet Union
Sources:
a. Brovkin, Vladimir N., ed. The Bolsheviks In Russian Society: The Revolution and The Civil Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.
b. Goldman, Wendy. Women, the State, and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917–1936. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
c. Harding, Neil. Leninism. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996.
d. Malle, Silvana. The Economic Organization Of War Communism, 1918–1921. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
e. Pipes, Richard. The Russian Revolution 1899–1919. New York: Knopf, 1990.
f. Siegelbaum, Lewis H. Soviet State and Society Between Revolutions, 1918–1929. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
4. China and Japan, 1900–1929
Sources:
a. Bartholomew, James R. “Modern Science in Japan: Comparative Perspectives.” Journal of World History 4:1 (1993).
b. Irokawa, Daikichi. The Age of Hirohito: In Search of Modern Japan. New York: Free Press, 1995.
c. Reynolds, Douglas R. China, 1898–1912: the Xinzheng Revolution and Japan. Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1993.
d. Sheridan, James E. China in Disintegration: The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912–1949. New York: New York: Free Press, 1977.
e. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. 2nd. New York: W.W. Norton, 1999.
5. The Cultural Transformation of the West
Sources:
a. Eckstein, Modris. Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989.
b. Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York: W.W. Norton, 1988.
c. Gamow, George. Thirty Years That Shook Physics. Garden City, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1966.
d. Hughes, H. Stuart. Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of European Social Thought, 1890–1930. New York: Vintage Books, 1977.
e. Hughes, Thomas. American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870–1970. New York: Viking, 1989.
PAPER TOPICS
1. Compare the First World War with the American Civil War or with the Taiping Rebellion. Issues that you might want to consider include technology and its impact on warfare, the effects of war on the role of the state, and the effects of war on society.
2. State and justify your position on the following statement: “China’s experience in the First World War was representative of the experience of most Asian and African countries.”
3. How did the First World War influence the development of technology in the West?
4. Compare the Russian Revolution to the French Revolution.
INTERNET RESOURCES
The following Internet sites contain written and visual material appropriate for use with this chapter. A more extensive and continually updated list of Internet resources can be found on The Earth and Its Peoples web site. Refer to The Earth and Its Peoples Web Site section located at the beginning of this manual for information on how to locate the text homepage.
The Great War: 80 Years On (BBC Online Network)
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/newsid_197000/
197437.stm
The Internet Modern Sourcebook: The Russian Revolution (P. Halsall, Fordham University)
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook39.html
Aftermath: When the Boys Came Home
http://www.aftermath.ladybarn.co.uk/index.html
Armenian National Institute: Armenian Genocide
http://www.armenian-genocide.org/index.htm